Diet & Fitness

 

Most doctors, many other healthcare professionals, and the March of Dimes recommend that all women of childbearing age supplement with 400 mcg per day of folic acid. Such supplementation could protect against the formation of neural tube defects (such as spina bifida) during the time between conception and when pregnancy is discovered.

The requirement for the B vitamin folic acid doubles during pregnancy, to 800 mcg per day from all sources.¹ Deficiencies of folic acid during pregnancy have been linked to low birth weight² and to an increased incidence of neural tube defects (e.g., spina bifida) in infants. In one study, women who were at high risk of giving birth to babies with neural tube defects were able to lower their risk by 72% by taking folic acid supplements prior to and during pregnancy.³ Several preliminary studies have shown that a deficiency of folate in the blood may increase the risk of stunted growth of the fetus.^{4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11} This does not prove, however, that folic acid supplementation results in higher birth weights. Although some trials have found that folic acid and iron, when taken together, have improved birth weights,^12,13,14,15 other trials have found supplementation with these nutrients to be ineffective.^16,17,18

The relationship between folate status and the risk of miscarriage is also somewhat unclear. In some studies, women who have had habitual miscarriages were found to have elevated levels of homocysteine (a marker of folate deficiency).^19,20,21,22 In a preliminary study, 22 women with recurrent miscarriages who had elevated levels of homocysteine were treated with 15 mg per day of folic acid and 750 mg per day of vitamin B6, prior to and throughout their next pregnancy. This treatment reduced homocysteine levels to normal and was associated with 20 successful pregnancies.²³ It is not known whether supplementing with these vitamins would help prevent miscarriages in women with normal homocysteine levels. As the amounts of folic acid and vitamin B6 used in this study were extremely large and potentially toxic, this treatment should be used only with the supervision of a doctor.

In other studies, however, folate levels did not correlate with the incidence of habitual miscarriages.^24,25,26

Preliminary²⁷ and double-blind²⁸ evidence has shown that women who use a multivitamin-mineral formula containing folic acid beginning three months before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first three months of pregnancy have a significantly lower risk of having babies with neural tube defects (e.g., spina bifida) and other congenital defects.

In addition to achieving significant protection against birth defects, women who take folic acid supplements during pregnancy have been reported to have fewer infections, and to give birth to babies with higher birth weights and better Apgar scores. ⁵ (An Apgar score is an evaluation of the well-being of a newborn, based on his or her color, crying, muscle tone, and other signs.) However, if a woman waits until after discovering her pregnancy to begin taking folic acid supplements, it will probably be too late to prevent a neural tube defect.

Iodine is an essential nutrient for the development of the fetal thyroid gland which, in turn, is important for brain development. Even mild iodine deficiency during pregnancy may have an adverse effect on cognitive function of the child.²⁹ In a preliminary study of women in Italy, iodine deficiency severe enough to cause hypothyroidism during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder in their children.³⁰ However, excessive iodine intake can also adversely affect the thyroid gland. Women who are pregnant or planning to become pregnant should ask their healthcare professional whether they should take a prenatal supplement that contains iodine.

 

Biotin deficiency may occur in as many as 50% of pregnant women.³¹ As biotin deficiency in pregnant animals results in birth defects, it seems reasonable to use a prenatal multiple vitamin and mineral formula that contains biotin.

 

Calcium needs double during pregnancy.³² Low dietary intake of this mineral is associated with increased risk of preeclampsia, a potentially dangerous (but preventable) condition characterized by high blood pressure and swelling. Supplementation with calcium may reduce the risk of pre-term delivery, which is often associated with preeclampsia. Calcium may reduce the risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension,³³ though these effects are more likely to occur in women who are calcium deficient.^34,35 Supplementation with up to 2 grams of calcium per day by pregnant women with low dietary calcium intake has been shown to improve the bone strength of the fetuses.³⁶

Pregnant women should consume 1,500 mg of calcium per day from all sources—food plus supplements. Food sources of calcium include dairy products, dark green leafy vegetables, tofu, sardines (canned with edible bones), salmon (canned with edible bones), peas, and beans.

 

Supplementation with fish oil (providing either 2.7 g or 6.1 g per day of the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA) significantly reduced recurrence of premature delivery, according to data culled from six clinical trials involving women with a high risk for such complications.³⁷ Fish oil supplementation did not prevent premature delivery of twin pregnancies, nor did it have any preventive effect against intrauterine growth retardation or pregnancy-induced hypertension. Fish oils should be free of contaminants, such as mercury and organochlorine pesticides. Women who eat substantial amounts of certain types of seafood (e.g., swordfish, tuna) may be consuming contaminants that can increase the risk of brain and nervous system abnormalities in their offspring. Exposure to mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was found to be increased in relation to maternal intake of seafood. Higher exposure to these toxic contaminants has been linked to an increased risk of deficits in the developing brains and nervous systems of the children.³⁸

 

Iron requirements increase during pregnancy, making iron deficiency in pregnancy quite common.³⁹ Iron supplement use in the United States is estimated at 85% during pregnancy, with most women taking supplements three or more times per week for three months.⁴⁰ Pregnant women with a documented iron deficiency need doctor-supervised treatment. In one study, 65% of women who were not given extra iron developed iron deficiency during pregnancy, compared with none who received an iron supplement.⁴¹ However, there is a clear increase in reported side effects with increasing supplement amounts of iron, especially iron sulfate.^42,43 Supplementation with large amounts of iron has also been shown to reduce blood levels of zinc.⁴⁴ Although the significance of that finding is not clear, low blood levels of zinc have been associated with an increased risk of complications in both the mother and fetus.⁴⁵

Iron supplementation was associated in one study with an increased incidence of birth defects,⁴⁶ possibly as a result of an iron-induced deficiency of zinc. Although additional research needs to be done, the evidence suggests that women who are supplementing with iron during pregnancy should also take a multivitamin-mineral formula that contains adequate amounts of zinc. To be on the safe side, pregnant women should discuss their supplement program with a doctor.

A double-blind trial found that supplementing with 100 mg of magnesium three times per day for four weeks improved pregnancy-induced leg cramps.⁴⁷ However, another double-blind study found that 360 mg of magnesium per day for two weeks did not relieve pregnancy-induced leg cramps.⁴⁸

 

Premature rupture of membranes (PROM) affects 10 to 20% of all pregnancies. It is an important cause of preterm delivery and is associated with increased rates of complications in both the mother and child. In a double-blind study, supplementing with 100 mg of vitamin C per day, beginning in the twentieth week of pregnancy, reduced the incidence of PROM by 74%.⁴⁹ The women in this study were consuming only about 65 mg of vitamin C per day in their diet, which is less than the RDA of 80 to 85 mg per day for pregnant women. In a double-blind study of pregnant smokers, supplementation with 500 mg per day of vitamin C, beginning at 23 weeks of pregnancy or earlier and continuing until delivery, improved lung function and decreased the incidence of wheezing in the offspring.⁵⁰

 

In a preliminary study, pregnant women who used a zinc-containing nutritional supplement in the three months before and after conception had a 36% decreased chance of having a baby with a neural tube defect, and women who had the highest dietary zinc intake (but took no vitamin supplement) had a 30% decreased risk.⁵¹

 

Many tonic herbs, which are believed to strengthen or invigorate organ systems or the entire body, can be taken safely every day during pregnancy. Examples include dandelion leaf and root, red raspberry leaf, and nettle. Dandelion leaf and root are rich sources of vitamins and minerals, including beta-carotene, calcium, potassium, and iron. Dandelion leaf is mildly diuretic (promotes urine flow); it also stimulates bile flow and helps with the common digestive complaints of pregnancy. Dandelion root is traditionally used to strengthen and invigorate the liver.⁵²

 

Goat’s rue (Galega officinalis) has a history of use in Europe for supporting breast-feeding. Taking 1 teaspoon of goat’s rue tincture per day is considered by some European practitioners to be helpful in increasing milk volume.⁵³ Studies to support the use of goat’s rue as a galactagogue are lacking.

 

Many tonic herbs, which are believed to strengthen or invigorate organ systems or the entire body, can be taken safely every day during pregnancy. Examples include dandelion leaf and root, red raspberry leaf, and nettle. Dandelion leaf and root are rich sources of vitamins and minerals, including beta-carotene, calcium, potassium, and iron. Dandelion leaf is mildly diuretic (promotes urine flow); it also stimulates bile flow and helps with the common digestive complaints of pregnancy. Dandelion root is traditionally used to strengthen and invigorate the liver.⁵⁴

Nettle leaf is rich in the minerals calcium and iron, is mildly diuretic, and is diuretic. Nettle leaf is rich in the minerals calcium and iron, is and mildly diuretic. Nettle enriches and increases the flow of breast milk and restores the mother’s energy following childbirth.⁵⁵

In a controlled study, pregnant women who took 30 mg per day of Pycnogenol reported some relief of pain in the legs, pelvis, hip, and low back.⁵⁶ Double-blind research is needed to confirm these findings.

 

Many tonic herbs, which are believed to strengthen or invigorate organ systems or the entire body, can be taken safely every day during pregnancy. Examples include dandelion leaf and root, red raspberry leaf, and nettle. Dandelion leaf and root are rich sources of vitamins and minerals, including beta-carotene, calcium, potassium, and iron. Dandelion leaf is mildly diuretic (promotes urine flow); it also stimulates bile flow and helps with the common digestive complaints of pregnancy. Dandelion root is traditionally used to strengthen and invigorate the liver.⁵⁷

Red raspberry leaf is the most frequently mentioned traditional herbal tonic for general support of pregnancy and breast-feeding. Rich in vitamins and minerals (especially iron), it is traditionally used to strengthen and invigorate the uterus, increase milk flow, and restore the mother’s system after childbirth.⁵⁸

 

Sage has traditionally been used to dry up milk production when a woman no longer wishes to breast-feed.⁵⁹ It should not be taken during pregnancy.

 

Numerous herbs, known as galactagogues, are used in traditional herbal medicine systems around the world to promote production of breast milk.⁶⁰ These are known as galactagogues. Vitex is one of the best recognized herbs in Europe for promoting lactation. An older German clinical trial found that 15 drops of a vitex tincture three times per day could increase the amount of milk produced by mothers with or without pregnancy complications, as compared with mothers given vitamin B1 or nothing.⁶¹ However, vitex should not be taken during pregnancy.